Adult learning is fundamentally different from teaching children. Adults enter a learning environment with existing knowledge, work experience, personal beliefs, responsibilities, expectations and often a clear reason for wanting to learn. They are not simply empty vessels waiting to be filled with information.

This difference is central to Malcolm Knowles’ theory of andragogy, one of the most influential frameworks for understanding adult learning. Knowles proposed that adult learners have particular characteristics that should shape how training is designed and delivered.

For trainers, facilitators and learning designers, Knowles’ theory provides a practical way to move from “What information do I need to teach?” to “How can I help adults learn something they can actually use?”

This article explains Knowles’ adult learning theory, its six major assumptions, how it can be applied to training design, its relationship with learning objectives and assessment, practical examples, limitations, and how trainers can use it to create more learner-centred programmes.

What Is Knowles’ Adult Learning Theory?

Malcolm Knowles was an American adult educator who popularised the concept of andragogy, commonly described as the art and science of helping adults learn.

The term andragogy is often contrasted with pedagogy, which traditionally refers to teaching children.

Knowles argued that adult learners tend to approach learning differently because they have accumulated experiences, developed a sense of self-direction and usually want to understand the practical relevance of what they are learning.

His theory initially identified four assumptions about adult learners and was later expanded to six assumptions.

The six assumptions are:

1. Adults need to know why they are learning something.
2. Adults have a self-concept of being responsible for their own decisions.
3. Adults bring prior experience to the learning process.
4. Adults become ready to learn when they encounter relevant situations or developmental needs.
5. Adults tend to be problem-centred rather than subject-centred.
6. Adults are motivated by both internal and external factors.

These assumptions are not rules saying that every adult learns in exactly the same way. Instead, they provide a useful framework for designing learning environments that recognise the characteristics adults commonly bring into training.

1. Adults Need to Know Why They Are Learning

One of Knowles’ key assumptions is that adults want to understand why learning something is necessary or useful.

Imagine telling a social media professional:

“Today, we are going to learn storyboarding.”

That tells the learner what they will learn, but not necessarily why it matters.

A stronger approach would be:

“By the end of this session, you will be able to create a simple storyboard that helps you plan your video structure before filming.”

The second explanation establishes relevance.

The learner can immediately see the connection between the learning activity and an actual task.

How trainers can apply this

At the beginning of a lesson, explain:

• What learners will learn
• Why the skill matters
• Where they can use it
• What problem it helps them solve
• What they will be able to do after the training

For example, instead of beginning a lesson on analytics with:

“Today we are covering Instagram Insights.”

A trainer could begin with:

“Today you will learn how to use Instagram analytics to identify which content is performing well and decide what type of content to create next.”

The second version establishes a clear purpose.

This is particularly important for workplace learning because adults often evaluate training according to its perceived usefulness.

2. Adults Have a Self-Concept of Being Self-Directed

Adults generally see themselves as responsible for making their own decisions.

They may have jobs, manage businesses, care for families, make financial decisions and solve problems independently. Consequently, overly controlling learning environments can sometimes conflict with their expectations.

This does not mean adults should simply be left alone to learn.

Rather, trainers can provide structure while allowing appropriate autonomy.

For example, instead of giving every learner exactly the same content creation task, a trainer might provide a common objective:

Create a 30-second social media video for a defined target audience.

Learners can then choose:

• The topic
• The platform
• The creative concept
• The filming approach
• The editing style

The trainer remains responsible for facilitating the learning process, but learners have some ownership over how they approach the task.

Practical strategies

Trainers can encourage self-direction by:

• Providing choices between activities
• Allowing learners to select relevant examples
• Encouraging independent research
• Using self-assessment
• Providing resources for further learning
• Allowing learners to set personal learning goals
• Using project-based assignments

However, self-directed learning should not be confused with completely independent learning.

Adult learners still need:

• Clear expectations
• Learning resources
• Feedback
• Guidance
• Assessment criteria
• Opportunities to ask questions

The trainer’s role therefore shifts from simply delivering information toward facilitating learning.

3. Adults Bring Prior Experience

Perhaps one of the most important differences between adult and child learners is the amount of experience adults may bring into the classroom.

An adult learner may already have:

• Industry knowledge
• Workplace experience
• Previous training
• Personal experiences
• Professional habits
• Existing skills
• Opinions about what works and what does not

This experience can become an important learning resource.

For example, imagine teaching experienced marketers how to create a content calendar.

Instead of starting from scratch, the trainer could ask:

“What challenges have you experienced when planning content?”

Learners might mention:

• Running out of ideas
• Inconsistent posting
• Difficulty identifying trends
• Lack of coordination between platforms
• Last-minute content creation

The trainer can then connect these existing experiences to the new framework.

Experience can help — but it can also create challenges

Prior experience is not automatically correct.

Learners may have developed habits that are outdated or ineffective.

For example, someone may say:

“I’ve always created content based on intuition, so analytics aren’t necessary.”

The trainer does not need to dismiss the learner’s experience. Instead, the experience can become a starting point for examination.

A useful approach is:

Experience → Reflection → New knowledge → Application

This transforms learners’ existing knowledge into a learning resource.

4. Adults Become Ready to Learn When They Encounter Relevant Needs

Knowles suggested that adults become more ready to learn when they encounter situations that require new knowledge or skills.

Consider someone who has worked in marketing for five years but is suddenly asked to manage TikTok content.

The person may become highly motivated to learn:

• Short-form video creation
• TikTok content strategy
• Trend research
• Video editing
• Analytics

The need creates readiness.

This has important implications for training design.

Instead of presenting information without context, trainers can introduce a realistic situation first.

For example:

“Your company has asked you to increase engagement on its social media channels. Current content receives low engagement. What would you investigate first?”

Learners now have a problem to solve.

The learning content that follows becomes relevant because it helps them address the situation.

Training should connect with real situations

Examples include:

• A customer complaint
• A workplace project
• A business problem
• A new technology
• A career transition
• A performance gap
• A regulatory requirement
• A new role

This is particularly useful in continuing education and professional training.

5. Adults Tend to Be Problem-Centred

Traditional education can sometimes be organised around subjects.

For example:

Module 1: Marketing Principles
Module 2: Consumer Behaviour
Module 3: Social Media
Module 4: Analytics

Knowles’ approach encourages trainers to consider whether learning can instead be organised around problems, tasks or situations.

For example:

“How do you decide what content to create next?”

This problem could require learners to use:

• Audience analysis
• Content strategy
• Trend research
• Social media analytics
• Content planning

The knowledge is still taught, but it is connected to a meaningful problem.

Subject-centred vs problem-centred

Subject-centred approach:

Learn five types of social media analytics.

Problem-centred approach:

Your engagement has fallen by 30%. Use analytics to identify possible reasons and propose your next content strategy.

The second approach creates a context in which knowledge becomes useful.

This does not mean all adult learning must be problem-based. Some knowledge still needs direct instruction. However, connecting knowledge to authentic tasks can strengthen its practical relevance.

 

6. Adults Are Motivated by Internal and External Factors

Adults can be motivated by external factors such as:

• Salary
• Promotion
• Certification
• Career opportunities
• Job requirements
• Performance targets

However, Knowles also recognised internal motivations.

These can include:

• Personal satisfaction
• Confidence
• Curiosity
• Professional identity
• Personal growth
• Greater independence
• A desire to improve

For example, someone may attend a video editing course because their employer requires it.

That is an external motivation.

But during the course, they may become interested in filmmaking and continue learning because they genuinely enjoy creating videos.

That is an internal motivation.

Effective adult learning can acknowledge both.

Applying Knowles’ Theory to Training Design

Knowles’ assumptions become particularly useful when they are translated into actual instructional design decisions.

A trainer can ask six questions when developing a course.

Knowles’ assumption	Trainer’s design question
Need to know	Why does the learner need this?
Self-concept	Where can learners make choices?
Experience	What existing knowledge can learners contribute?
Readiness	What real situation makes this learning relevant?
Problem-centred	What workplace problem can learners solve?
Motivation	What internal and external reasons encourage learning?

This creates a learner-centred design process.

Knowles and Learning Objectives

Knowles’ theory also works well alongside frameworks such as Bloom’s Taxonomy.

The two frameworks serve different purposes.

Knowles helps trainers think about:

How should we design learning for adults?

Bloom’s Taxonomy helps trainers think about:

What level of thinking or performance should learners demonstrate?

For example, suppose the course is about social media content creation.

A learning progression might be:

Remember

Learners identify basic filming principles.

Understand

Learners explain when different composition techniques should be used.

Apply

Learners use storyboarding, filming and editing techniques to create content.

Analyse

Learners analyse performance data to identify what could be improved.

Evaluate

Learners assess their own content against defined criteria.

Create

Learners develop a new piece of content using the skills they have learned.

Knowles can then influence how these activities are delivered.

Instead of simply lecturing about composition, learners might analyse their own existing content.

Instead of only explaining analytics, learners could examine a realistic campaign and decide what to change.

This combines a cognitive learning framework with an adult-learning approach.

Knowles and Experiential Learning

Knowles’ emphasis on experience also connects naturally with experiential learning.

A simple training cycle could look like:

Experience → Reflection → Concept → Application

For example:

1. Learners create a short video.
2. They review the result.
3. The trainer introduces relevant filming principles.
4. Learners recreate the video using those principles.

The learner’s experience becomes part of the learning process.

This can be particularly effective for skills-based training because learners are not simply receiving information. They are doing, reflecting and improving.

Example: Applying Knowles to a Social Media Course

Imagine a course called:

“Create Effective Short-Form Social Media Content.”

A traditional approach might involve several lectures covering:

• Social media platforms
• Content types
• Filming
• Editing
• Scheduling
• Analytics

A Knowles-informed approach could begin with a problem:

“Your brand’s social media content is receiving views but very little engagement. How would you determine what to change?”

The trainer could then:

Step 1: Activate experience

Ask learners:

“What type of content have you created before?”

Step 2: Establish relevance

Explain:

“Today’s activities will help you diagnose content performance and create a stronger content plan.”

Step 3: Introduce concepts

Teach:

• Audience
• Content objectives
• Storyboarding
• Composition
• Editing
• Scheduling
• Analytics

Step 4: Apply the knowledge

Learners create a short-form video.

Step 5: Analyse

Learners examine performance data or a simulated analytics dashboard.

Step 6: Improve

Learners modify their content strategy based on the evidence.

Step 7: Create

Learners produce another piece of content incorporating their learning.

This creates a clear connection between knowledge, experience, application and improvement.

The Role of the Trainer in Knowles’ Theory

Knowles’ theory does not mean that trainers are unnecessary.

Instead, the trainer’s role changes.

Rather than being only a:

Knowledge provider

the trainer can become a:

Facilitator → Guide → Coach → Feedback provider → Learning designer

The trainer still provides expertise, but also creates opportunities for learners to:

• Discuss
• Practise
• Question
• Reflect
• Experiment
• Solve problems
• Apply knowledge
• Receive feedback

This is particularly relevant to competency-based education, where the goal is not merely for learners to know something but to demonstrate the required skill or behaviour.

Benefits of Using Knowles’ Adult Learning Theory

Applying Knowles’ principles can help trainers create learning experiences that are:

More relevant

Learners understand why the content matters.

More practical

Learning activities connect to real-world tasks.

More engaging

Learners participate rather than only listen.

More respectful

Existing knowledge and experience are recognised.

More learner-centred

Learners have opportunities for autonomy and choice.

More transferable

Learners practise applying knowledge in realistic situations.

These principles can be particularly valuable in workplace learning, professional development and career-transition programmes.

Limitations of Knowles’ Theory

Knowles’ theory is influential, but it should not be treated as a universal formula.

Not every adult learner is:

• Self-directed
• Internally motivated
• Problem-centred
• Experienced in the relevant subject
• Ready to learn

Adults differ considerably in their backgrounds, confidence, learning preferences and circumstances.

For example, a beginner entering a completely unfamiliar industry may require substantial structure and instruction.

Similarly, an adult learner may prefer a highly guided learning environment rather than extensive choice.

Therefore, trainers should use Knowles as a design lens, rather than assuming that every adult behaves according to all six assumptions.

Good instructional design also considers:

• Learner characteristics
• Learning objectives
• Subject matter
• Context
• Accessibility
• Prior knowledge
• Assessment requirements
• Available resources
• Time constraints

Knowles in Modern Adult Education

Knowles’ ideas remain useful because many forms of modern education involve adults learning for immediate practical purposes.

Examples include:

• Professional certification
• Workplace training
• Career conversion
• Continuing education
• Skills upgrading
• Entrepreneurship
• Digital skills
• Leadership development
• Technical training

Modern learning environments can also provide greater opportunities for self-direction through:

• Online learning
• Microlearning
• Learning management systems
• Simulations
• Project-based learning
• Peer learning
• Communities of practice
• Digital resources

However, technology itself does not make learning adult-centred.

The key question remains:

Does the learning experience help adults understand, apply and use what they are learning?

Knowles’ Theory: A Practical Checklist for Trainers

Before delivering an adult-learning programme, trainers can ask:

1. Why does the learner need this?

Can the learner see the purpose?

2. What experience does the learner already have?

How can existing knowledge be incorporated?

3. Where can the learner make decisions?

Are there meaningful opportunities for autonomy?

4. What real-world situation creates the need to learn?

Can the training begin with a realistic context?

5. What problem will the learner solve?

Can the content be connected to an authentic task?

6. What motivates the learner?

Are both practical and personal motivations considered?

7. What will the learner actually do?

Does the training include practice rather than only information?

8. How will the learner know whether they have improved?

Are feedback and assessment aligned with the learning objective?

Conclusion

Knowles’ adult learning theory provides an important foundation for understanding how adult learners can be supported effectively.

Its six assumptions highlight that adults commonly want to understand why they are learning, bring previous experience, value autonomy, become more ready to learn when faced with relevant situations, prefer learning that helps them address real problems, and can be influenced by both internal and external motivation.

For trainers, the practical lesson is not simply to make training more entertaining. It is to make learning meaningful, relevant, experiential and applicable.

A strong adult-learning programme therefore moves beyond:

“Here is the information you need to know.”

towards:

“Here is why this matters, here is how it connects to what you already know, here is the problem you need to solve, and here is an opportunity to practise using the skill.”

When combined with frameworks such as Bloom’s Taxonomy, learning objectives, experiential learning, competency frameworks and structured assessment, Knowles’ principles can help trainers design learning experiences that connect knowledge with real-world performance.

Ultimately, adult learning is not simply about transferring information from trainer to learner. It is about creating the conditions in which learners can connect experience with new knowledge, apply what they learn, reflect on their performance and continue developing their capability.